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Sugar  Cane  Culture. 


Published  by 

GERMAN  KALI  WORKS, 

93  NASSAU  STREET, 
NEW  YORK. 


NOTICE. 

This  pamphlet  will  be  sent  free  to  applicants.      Other  publications  for 
free  distribution  are  : 

"FERTILIZING  SUGAR  CANE," 
(English  and  Spanish.) 

"FERTILIZING  OF  SUGAR  CANE  IN  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS," 

(English  and  Spanish.) 

"FERTILIZING  TOBACCO," 

(English  and  Spanish.) 

"TROPICAL  PLANTING," 
(English  and  Spanish.) 

"PLANT  FOOD," 

"TRUCK  FARMING." 

Address, 

GERMAN  KALI  WORKS, 

93  Nassau  Street,  New  York,  U.  S.  A. 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

# 


History  of  the  Sugar  Cane 6 

Botany 12 

Anatomy 17 

Climate  for  Cane 19 

Drainage 21 

Irrigation 25 

Varieties  of   Cane 29 

Seedlings 30 

Soils  for    Sugar  Culture ;^^ 

Composition  of   Cane 39 

Fertilizing  Requirements    of  Cane    45 

Stable  Manures  and  Green  Manuring 50 

Fertilizer  Requirements  of  Cane    Soils 52 

Quantity  of    Fertilizers    per  Acre,  and   how  to  apply 

them 58 

Value    of  Fertilizers 6  r 

Tables  giving  composition  of  fertilizer  materials  and 

farm    manures 67  68 


PREFACE. 

ALL  thoughtful  sugar  planters  realize  the  absolute 
necessity  of  intelligent  and  progressive  methods  in 
growing  the  cane  in  order  to  secure  profit.  The  languishing 
of  this  important  industry  has  been  caused  by  antiquated, 
expensive,  unscientific  methods  of  cultivating,  planting  and 
fertilizing  the  sugar  crop.  These  points  are  brought  out 
clearly  by  comparison  with  the  sugar  beet,  a  plant  naturally 
containing  but  little  sugar,  and  the  cane  plant,  which  is  a 
natural  and  far  superior  sugar  producer. 

By  persistent  effort  and  scientific  methods,  the  sugar 
beet  has  been  wonderfully  developed,  so  that  five-eighths  of 
the  world's  supply  of  sugar  is  derived  from  it.  While  this 
development  of  the  beet  has  been  in  progress,  the  cane,  in 
many  countries,  has  received  little  or  no  attention.  Prices 
of  sugar  have  declined,  but  the  cost  of  producing  it,  in  the 
old  way,  has  remained  the  same.  The  natural  result  is, 
that,  in  many  sections,  the  sugar  planter  did  not  realize  the 
real  conditions  confronting  him  until  he  found  his  profits 
gone,  and  his  estates  encumbered  with  debt.  Fortunately 
some  countries  and  some  planters  were  more  wise, — have 
been  modern,  progressive  and  abreast  with  the  advance 
thought  of  the  age  ;  these  are  to-day  leading  the  world  in 
the  production  of  sugar. 

It  is  for  the  purpose  of  helping  all  sugar  planters,  who 
wish  to  better  their  condition,  that  this  little  pamphlet  of 
modern  practices  in  cane  culture  is  issued. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  SUGAR  CANE. 

IT  is  claimed,  and  probably  true,  that  sugar  cane  was  first 
cultivated  in  China,  and  sugar  manufactured  from 
it  over  a  thousand  years  before  its  introduction  into 
Europe.  Undoubtedly  the  Chinese  were  early  manufact- 
urers of  sugar,  and  claim  that  they  were  the  first,  but  on 
this  point  there  is  considerable  doubt.  They  themselves 
candidly  confess  that  it  came  to  them  from  the  East.  In 
their  most  ancient  works  no  allusion  to  it  has  been  found. 
In  the  second  century  B.  C.  its  authors  speak  of  it,  and  in 
^he  fourth  century  A.  D.  it  is  described  in  a  work  which 
calls  it  the  "  Kan-che,"  (Kan-sweet  and  che-bamboo).  *'  It 
grows  in  Cochin  China.  It  is  many  inches  in  diameter  and 
resembles  bamboo.  The  stalk  broken  into  fragments  is 
eatable  and  very  sweet.  The  juice  which  is  drawn  from  it 
is  dried  in  the  sun.  After  some  days  it  becomes  sugar." 
In  the  year  286  A.  D.  the  Kingdom  of  Turran  in  India  sent 
sugar  as  a  tribute  to  China. 

De  Condolle  says,  "  it  has  been  demonstrated  by  a  crowd 
of  historical  witnesses,  that  sugar  cane  was  first  cultivated 
in  meridional  Asia,  whence  it  has  spread  into  Africa  and 
later  into  America." 

Karl  Ritter  stated,  that  all  the  varieties  of  cane  known 
in  a  wild  state  and  belonging  to  the  genus  "saccharum" 
grew  in  India  except  one  which  was  in  Egypt. 


HISTORY    OF    THE    SUGAR    CANE.  7 

Linguistic  and  historical  facts  support  the  claim  of 
Asiatic  origin.  All  European  languages  of  Aryan  origin 
have  names  for  sugar,  derived  from  the  Sanskrit  "  Sakkara 
or  Sarkara,"  but  those  not  of  Aryan  origin  have  a  great 
variety  of  names  for  both  ''sugar"  and  "cane."  This 
similarity  of  names  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  diversity  on 
the  other,  support  the  presumption  of  the  great  antiquity 
of  its  culture  in  Asia,  where  botanical  indications  presumed 
its  origin. 

Sugar  cane  was  found  growing  in  many  of  the  Pacific 
Islands  at  the  time  they  were  discovered  by  the  white  man, 
and  it  was  inferred  that  it  was  indigenous,  but  it  has  since 
been  indisputably  proved  that  it,  with  many  other  useful 
plants,  was  carried  by  the  Maori  race  in  all  of  its  migrations, 
and  that  they  had  obtained  it  from  India.  As  far  as  modern 
research  has  been  able  to  ascertain,  it  came  to  China  from 
Cochin  China,  and  had  its  origin  either  in  that  country  or 
Bengal. 

The  Greeks  and  the  Romans  were  acquainted  with  the 
propagation  of  sugar  cane  in  the  West  of  India,  as  is 
shown  by  the  writings  of  Paulus  ^Egineta,  Theophrastus, 
Dioscorides,  Pliny,  Varro,  Seneca  and  others.  Sugar  was 
called  "  Indian  salt,"  ''honey  from  bamboo,"  "a  honey  con- 
cocted in  India  and  Arabia,"  "  a  honey  produced  either  by 
the  dew  of  heaven  or  by  the  sweet  and  thick  sap  of  the 
reed,"  "a  concretion  similar  to  our  own  salt,  and  which, 
when  subjected  to  the  teeth,  breaks  up  after  the  manner  of 
salt." 


8  HISTORY    OF    THE    SUGAR    CANE. 

Hebrew  writers  do  not  mention  sugar  or  sugar  cane,  and 
it  is  inferred  that  the  culture  of  cane  did  not  exist  in  the 
East  of  India  at  the  time  of  the  "  Captivity  of  the  Jews  at 
Babylon." 

From  what  has  been  said,  the  deduction  follows,  that  its 
seemingly  trustworthy  history  makes  India  the  original 
home  or  at  least  the  first  place  where  it  had  food,  or  com- 
mercial value,  and  from  there  spread  into  China,  where  it 
has  been  extensively  cultivated  for  many  centuries.  Thence 
it  passed  to  Arabia,  Nubia,  Ethiopia  and  Egypt. 

The  Venetians  (about  1500  A.  D.)  introduced  sugar  cane 
into  Syria,  Cyprus  and  Sicily.  Dom  Henri,  King  of  Portu- 
gal, imported  it  into  the  Madeira  and  Canary  Islands,  where 
for  300  years,  all  of  the  sugar  consumed  in  Europe  was 
manufactured.  It  was  next  introduced  into  Southern 
Spain,  where  its  culture  still  prevails,  though  within  a  re- 
stricted territory.  At  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury it  was  carried  from  the  Canaries  to  Brazil.  Soon  after 
the  discovery  of  the  New  World,  Peter  Etienza  took  its  cul- 
tivation to  the  Island  of  St.  Domingo,  whence  it  spread  over 
all  the  West  India  Islands  and  Central  and  South  America. 

In  the  United  States  it  is  now  cultivated  along  the 
entire  Gulf  coast.  It  was  introduced  into  Louisiana  in 
1757,  and  became,  in  1795,  extensively  cultivated,  and  has 
since  then  been  the  chief  crop  of  the  State.  In  Florida  it 
had  a  checkered  career  from  1757  to  1825,  when  it  became 
permanently  domesticated  and  has  since  been  extensively 
grown  for  syrup  making. 


HISTORY    OF    THE    SUGAR    CANE.  IT 

In  Georgia,  Mr.  Thomas  Spalding  began  its  cultivation 
in  1805,  and  soon  after  large  estates  were  devoted  to  it  and 
sugar  houses  were  established.  The  discovery  of  the  cotton 
gin  and  the  wonderful  impetus,  which  it  gave  cotton  culture, 
caused  an  abandonment  of  cane  growing  by  the  large 
planters  on  the  alluvial  coast  lands,  but  the  small  farmers 
of  the  interior  took  it  up  and  grew  it  in  patches  and  manu- 
factured it,  by  the  crudest  machinery,  into  syrup  for  home 
consumption.  To-day  sugar  cane  is  grown  in  over  fifty 
counties  of  this  State,  and  an  enormous  quantity  of  excellent 
syrup  and  some  sugar  is  annually  made.  Georgia  syrup 
finds  its  way  to  nearly  every  market  in  the  United 
States. 

In  the  southern  parts  of  South  Carolina,  Alabama  and 
Mississippi  numerous  small  patches  of  sugar  cane  are  culti- 
vated and  converted  into  syrup  and  sugar  by  the  same 
primitive  methods  as  in  Georgia.  Only  Texas  and  Louisiana 
are  deeply  interested  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar  In  the 
former  State  there  are  twenty  or  more  large  sugar  houses, 
and  in  the  latter  over  four  hundred,  yielding  in  the  aggre- 
gate annually  nearly  400,000  tons  of  sugar.  This  does  not 
include  the  large  number  of  scattering  patches,  in  each 
State,  grown  for  the  home  manufacture  of  syrup  for  home 
consumption. 

The  manufacture  of  syrup  upon  a  small  scale,  with  horse 
mills  and  small  kettles  or  open  pans,  is  an  enormous  indus- 
try when  considered  in  the  aggregate.  From  Wilmington, 
N.  C,  on  down  the  Atlantic  coast   and  across  to  the   Gulf, 


12  HISTORY    OF    THE    SUGAR    CANE. 

following  its  coast  to  the  Rio  Grande,  is  a  section  of 
country  well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  cane. 

It  varies  in  width  from  loo  to  300  miles,  and  a  traveller 
through  it,  in  the  growing  season,  is  rarely  out  of  sight  of  a 
cane  patch.  The  methods  of  manufacture  are  extremely 
primitive,  almost  criminally  wasteful,  yet  the  syrup  made  is 
excellent  in  quality,  and  quantities  of  it  find  their  way,  at 
profitable  prices,  to  the  North  and  West  after  the  home 
demand  has  been  supplied. 

Better  methods  of  cultivating,  fertilizing  and  harvesting 
the  cane,  improved  machinery  for  larger  extraction  of  the 
juice  and  more  skillful  and  economical  ways  of  clarification 
and  evaporation,  would  almost  double  the  yield  from  the 
present  acreage,  which  itself  can  be  very  greatly  increased. 
In  fact,  the  present  consumption  of  sugar  in  the  United 
States  could  easily  be  met  by  this  section,  provided  the 
prices  of  sugar  would  justify  the  erection  of  factories  by 
those  having  the  capital — the  cane  could  easily  be  grown. 
This  section  alone  can  grow  sufficient  cane  to  meet  all 
the  present  demands  for  sugar  in  the  United  States,  and, 
it  is  believed,  will  do  so  as  soon  as  the  price  of  sugar  justi- 
fies putting  so  much  capital  into  its  factories. 


BOTANY. 


Sugar  Cane,  of  which  the  botanical  name  is  "saccharum 
officinarum,"  belongs  to  the  large  family  of  grasses.  It  is 
believed   that   all   the  cultivated  varieties  belong  to  one 


BOTANY, 


13 


species.  It  has  a  gigantic  stalk,  ten  to  twenty  feet  long, 
usually  straight  in  early  growth,  but  bent,  reclined  or  pros- 
trate by  its  own  weight  or  by  winds,  at  maturity.  It  has,  in 
common  with  all  grasses,  fibrous  roots,  which  reach 
laterally  in  every  direction,  but  never  penetrate  any  great 
depths  into  soil.  This  penetration  depends  largely  upon 
the  character  of  the  soil.  In  open,  porous,  sandy  soils  the 
roots  go  deeper  than  in  loam,  in  which  they  penetrate 
further  than  in  heavy  clay. 

The  root  stalk  is  a  prolongation  of  the  stalk,  terminating 
in  an  attachment  either  to  the  mother  cane  (plant)  or  to  the 
mother  stalk  (stubble).  The  true  roots 
reach  out  laterally  from  this  axis  for  food. 
The  cylindrical  cane  stalks  vary  in  i>ize 
according  to  variety,  maturity  and  condi- 
tions of  growth,  and  are  composed  of  nodes 
and  internodes  (joints),  which  vary  greatly 
in  number  and  in  length.  Canes  grown 
under  adverse  conditions  have  short  joints, 
but  those  favored  by  a  good  season  and 
fertile  soil  may  produce  joints  six  inches  or 
more  in  length.  Different  varieties  have, 
under  similar  conditions  of  growth,  different 
lengths  of  nodes,  and  usually  other  merits 
being  equal,  the  variety  which  has  the 
longest  nodes  or  joints  is  preferred. 

The  coloring   matter,  found  only  in  the 
epidermis    of   the    stalk,    differs     with   the 


B,  Joints  of  cane. 
A,  Buds  or  Eyes. 
D,  Internodes. 

C,  No  les. 

X,  Semi-transparent 
dots  in  rows 


14  BOTANY. 

varieties,  so  that  the  stalk-color  shades  through  white, 
yellow,  green,  red,  brown,  black,  purple  and  even  striped 
in  two  or  more  of  these  colors. 

A  wax  called  cerosin,  usually  found  on  the  parts  of  the 
stalks  adjoining  the  nodes,  is  mixed  with  the  juice  in  the 
process  of  crushing  the  cane,  but  is  removed  during  the 
clarification. 

Large  green  leaves  grow  on  alternate  sides  of  the  stalk- 
clasping,  but  gradually  ripen  and  fall  off  as  the  cane 
matures.  Each  leaf  has  a  mid-rib,  whitish  in  most  varieties, 
highly  colored  in  a  few,  with  a  channel-like  depression  on 
its  upper  surface.  Sometimes  the  lower  or  clasping  part 
of  the  leaf,  the  sheath  part,  is  filled  with  minute  prickers  or 
stickers.  In  gathering  such  canes,  the  workmen  need  to 
protect  their  hands. 

The  joints  mature,  as  previously  stated,  from  the  roots 
upward,  and  as  each  matures  it  casts  its  leaf,  until,  when  in 
proper  condition  for  harvest,  the  naked  stalk  has  only  a 
few  leaves  at  its  top. 

At  the  base  of  each  node,  under  the  leaf,  is  a  hard,  shiny 
bud  or  eye,  about  the  size  of  a  cow  pea.  These  eyes  are 
the  germs  of  future  canes,  used  for  the  propagation  of 
succeeding  crops,  and  are  surrounded  by  rows  of  dots, 
which  produce  roots  when  they  are  planted  in  moist  soils. 
These  roots  are  developed  simultaneously  with  the  bud, 
and  furnish  moisture  and  food  to  it. 

In  tropical  countries,  at  maturity,  the  sugar  cane  some- 
times flowers,  or  "tassels,"  that  is,  it  sends  out  long  pedun- 


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BOTANY.  17 

cles,  each  bearing  a  panicle  of  silken  spikes.  Each  floriet 
in  the  spike  has  three  stamens  inserted  in  the  ovary,  but 
many  seeds  are  infertile,  possibly  because  cane  has  so  long 
been  propagated  by  cutting,  that  its  flowers  have  lost 
vigor. 

ANATOMY* 

A  cross  section  of  cane  under  a  powerful  microscope 
reveals  pith  cells,  usually  six-sided,  which  contain  nearly 
all  its  sugar.  These  cells  are  somewhat  longer  than  thick, 
and  constitute  the  greater  part  of  the  interior  of  the  stalk. 
Distributed  through  them  are  groups  of  (fibro-vascular) 
bundles  of  tissue,  which  are  composed  of  (i)  vessels,  through 
which  water  from  the  root,  loaded  with  food,  reaches  the 
leaf,  and  (2)  sieve-tubes,  through  which  food  from  the  leaf 
is  distributed  throughout  the  plant,  and  (3)  bast  tissues  for 
strengthening  the  stalk.  These  bundles  are  much  more 
abundant  near  the  outer  part  of  the  stem,  where  the  vessels 
and  sieve-tubes  are  smaller  in  size  and  the  bast  tissues 
greatly  increased  to  give  additional  strength  and  protection. 

The  upper  part  of  each  node  and  internode,  or  joint,  is 
divided  into  two  parts,  the  inner  one  forming  the  rind  of 
the  next  joint  above,  and  the  outer  one,  uniting  with  the 
cells  from  within,  forming  the  leaf.  Just  above  the  rows  of 
root-dots  around  the  stalk  at  the  bud,  is  a  light  colored 
transparent  narrow  band,  which  clearly  divides  the  lower 
from  the  upper  joint. 

The  pith  cells,  which  are  so  abundant  in  the  internodes, 


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ANATOMY.  19 

almost  disappear  at  the  nodes,  and  are  replaced  by  fibro- 
vascular  bundles. 

The  bundles  of  the  stem  pass  into  the  leaf,  and  there 
meet  thick  short  starch  cells,  surrounded  by  chlorophyll 
cells,  which  are  not  found  in  the  stem.  In  these  the  food 
of  the  plant  is  elaborated.  There  are  also  wedge-shaped 
cells  on  the  upper  side  of  the  leaf,  which  unroll  the  leaf 
as  it  comes  out,  and  curl  it  during  excessive  evaporation, 
as  in  a  drought. 

CLIMATE  FOR  CANE. 

It  was  once  supposed  that  only  tropical  islands  and 
peninsulas  could  successfully  grow  sugar  cane,  because  they 
alone  had  the  sea  breezes  laden  with  the  particular  salts 
required  by  the  plant.  It  is  now  known  that  the  accessi- 
bility of  coast  localities  and  their  climatic  conditions, 
caused  them  to  be  selected  for  growing  cane  ;  the  heavy 
machinery  needed  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar  could  be 
easily  and  cheaply  delivered  there,  and  the  cane  products 
transported  to  other  countries.  Now,  with  cheap  inland 
freights  and  abundant  water  by  irrigation,  the  acreage  of 
sugar  growing  may  be  many  times  multiplied,  and  countries 
which  have  only  entered  experimentally  upon  sugar 
culture,  may  develop  into  large  producers. 

Mexico,  Central  and  South  America  have  large  areas 
capable  of  growing  cane  and  might  rapidly  develop  this 
industry,  were  the  price  of  sugar  satisfactory  and  their 
governments   stable,      Cuba  has  over  twenty-five  million 


20  CLIMATE    FOR    CANE. 

acres,  of  which  scarcely  one  million  is  under  cultivation, 
and  that  devoted  chiefly  to  sugar  cane.  There  will  be  at 
least  ten  million  acres  of  first  class  sugar  land  available 
when  the  system  of  railroads,  now  begun,  is  completed  over 
the  Island,  but  scarcity  of  labor,  insecurity  of  capital,  and 
the  low  price  of  sugar  may  prevent  a  rapid  occupation  of 
these  lands  as  sugar  estates.  Louisiana  and  the  Coast 
sections  of  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Mississippi 
and  Texas  are  capable  of  producing  vastly  more  cane  than 
they  do,  for  they  have  millions  of  acres,  which,  with  little 
expense,  can  be  brought  under  cultivation.  Many  of  the 
West  India  Islands  are  languishing  on  account  of  the  de- 
preciated values  of  sugar  estates,  due  to  the  low  price  of 
sugar  combined  with  wasteful  methods  and  mismanagement. 
A  healthy  rise  in  values  would  quickly  bring  capital  -to 
these  Islands,  and  it,  coupled  with  modern,  scientific 
methods  of  growing  cane  and  manufacturing  sugar,  would 
restore  these  steadily  declining  sugar  countries  to  the 
conditions  and  positions  of  wealth  which  they  once  held. 
In  a  broad  and  liberal  discussion  of  the  climate  and 
countries  adapted  to  cane  growing  and  sugar  manufactur- 
ing, one  must  admit  that  anywhere  between  30°  to  35° 
north  and  south  of  the  equator  it  may  be  grown  success- 
fully, provided  the  water-supply  (by  rainfall  or  irrigation) 
and  soil  be  satisfactory.  Sugar  cane  is  at  present  grown  in 
the  following  countries: — Abyssinia^  Argentina^  Queensland^ 
New  South  Wales,  Borneo^  Bourdon  and  Reunion,  Brazil,  Cape 
Colony^    Guiana^    Central  America^     Chili,    China,    Colombiay 


CLIMATE    FOR    CANE.  21 

Egypt,  India,  Japan,  Java,  Madeira,  Mauritius,  Mexico,  New 
Zealand,  Natal,  Fiji,  Hawaii,  Peru,  Philipines,  Siam,  Spain, 
Straits  Settlement,  United  States,  Venezuela  and  West  Indies. 
The  cultivation  extends  from  Spain  37*^  north  to  New 
Zealand  37°  south  on  both  sides  of  the  equator. 

Cane  is  a  gigantic  grass,  requiring  an  enormous  amount 
of  moisture  for  its  best  development.  An  abundance  of 
rainfall,  distributed  throughout  the  growing  seasons,  or  its 
equivalent  in  irrigation,  is  one  of  the  essential  conditions, 
for  sixty  inches  of  rainfall,  properly  distributed,  are  con- 
sidered necessary  to  produce  a  good  crop.  Of  course 
irrigation  answers  the  same  purpose,  and,  as  practised  in 
Hawaii,  produces  the  enormous  average  yield  of  over  eleven 
tons  of  sugar  per  acre  on  one  estate. 


DRAINAGE. 


While  it  is  true  that  sugar  cane  requires  a  large 
amount  of  water  for  its  best  development,  it  is  also 
true  that  a  well  drained  soil  is  absolutely  essential  to  vigor- 
ous growth  and  large  matured  canes.  These  require  large 
quantities  of  nitrogen  for  perfect  growth,  and  it  is  largely 
furnished  to  them  by  nitrification.  This  is  due  primarily 
to  microbes,  but  an  abundance  of  air,  a  moderate  amount 
of  moisture,  the  presence  of  a  little  alkali  and  organic 
matter  containing  nitrogen,  are  necessary  to  promote  this 
action.  Only  well  drained  soils  are  thoroughly  aerated, 
retentive  of  capillary  moisture,  and  free  from  organic  acids. 


22  DRAINAGE. 

Nitrification,  or  feeding  on  nitrogen  of  the  air  by  soil- 
dwelling  microbes,  is  so  intimately  dependent  upon  good 
drainage,  that  without  such  drainage  it  is  all  but  impossible 
and  a  cane  crop  is  a  certain  failure  if  planted  upon 
undrained  lands. 

Drainage  is  accomplished  either  by  open  ditches  or 
tiles.  Open  ditches  should  be  sufficiently  deep,  wide  and 
numerous  to  carry  off  the  heaviest  rainfalls  and  retain  the 
bottom  or  ground  water  at  a  constant  depth  of  3  to  4  feet 
below  the  soil.  Excellent  results  are  obtained  by  a  system 
of  ridged  rows  with  numerous  quarter-drains,  emptying 
into  open  ditches,  but  many  objections  can  be  raised 
against  them,  among  which  are  the  large  annual  expenses 
of  keeping  them  cleaned  out  and  their  banks  free  from 
weeds  and  bushes,  and  the  loss  of  land,  amounting  in  some 
countries  to  one-tenth  and  one-twelfth  of  the  area  cultivated. 
The  difficulty  of  cross-plowing  the  lands  when  breaking, 
and  the  imperfect  work  on  the  ditch  bank  rows  during 
cultivation,  are  minor  but  real  and  substantial  objections. 

Tile  drainage  is  far  superior  to  open  ditches,  where  such 
a  fall  can  be  obtained  that  the  water  will  keep  them  clean. 
The  great  objection  to  tiles  is  their  first  cost,  but  this  has 
to  be  incurred  but  once.  Experience  has  shown  the  great 
superiority  of  tiles  over  open  ditches,  from  the  flushing  of 
the  land  to  the  harvesting  of  the  crop.  Plowing  is  more 
easily  performed,  the  soil  in  the  spring  heats  more  quickly, 
moisture  is  better  conserved  in  a  drought,  cultivation  is 
easier  and  leaves  the  soil  in  better  condition  and  the  yield 


DRAINAGE.  25 

of  the  crop  is  much  larger.  All  of  these  are  practical  benefits, 
in  addition  to  the  increased  area  of  the  land,  and  the  saving 
of  the  numerous  and  continuous  expenses  and  annoyances 
incident  to  open  ditches  and  quarter-drains.  Tile  drainage, 
wherever  the  soils  permit  it,  not  only  repays  a  handsome 
interest  upon  the  investment,  but  also  each  year  gives  a 
surplus  for  a  sinking  fund,  which,  in  a  short,  time  will 
liquidate  the  principal,  if  it  were  borrowed  for  the  con- 
struction. The  tiles  should  be  laid  only  by  experienced 
engineers,  well  acquainted  with  the  soils  and  climate  of  the 
country. 

It  is  impossible  too  strongly  to  emphasize  the  importance 
of  good  drainage  of  all  sugar  lands. 


IRRIGATION* 

While  drainage  is  imperatively  needed  in  many  places, 
irrigation  is  as  important  in  others  where  the  rainfall  is 
deficient.  There  are  few  places  where  the  rainfall  is  ample 
and  so  well  distributed  throughout  the  season  as  to  produce 
maximum  crops.  The  history  of  nearly  every  country 
which  depends  upon  rainfall  for  its  water  supply,  shows 
that  maximum  crops  are  rarely  obtained,  and  that  an  over- 
whelming majority  of  crop  failures  follow  droughts  prevail- 
ing at  some  time  during  the  growing  period,  all  of  which 
indicates  that  even  in  places  which  have  a  large  annual  rain- 
fall, irrigation  may  be  used  with  enormous  profits. 

Water  is  esssential  to  all  crops,  and  is  needed  for  their 


26  IRRIGATION. 

growth  and  to  transport  the  other  chemical  ingredients 
through  the  plant.  For  every  pound  of  dry  matter  produced 
in  the  cane  400  to  500  pounds  of  water  pass  through  the 
plant  and  evaporate  by  its  foliage.  A  crop  of  45  tons  of 
cane  per  acre  (cane  and  its  accompanying  tops  and  leaves) 
contains  at  least  16  tons  of  dry  matter,  and,  using  the  mini- 
mum amount  per  ton  given  above,  evaporates  during  its 
growth,  from  the  foliage  alone,  the  enormous  quantity  of 
6,400  tons  of  water ;  this  takes  no  account  of  the  large 
amount  evaporated  from  the  soil.  To  supply  this  evapora- 
tion through  the  foliage,  requires  a  rainfall  of  over  56 
inches,  distributed  through  the  growing  season;  such  fall 
and  distribution  are  rare  in  any  country. 

In  Hawaii,  where  irrigation  is  highly  successful,  many 
interesting  results  have  been  obtained  at  the  Experiment 
Station  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Walter  Maxwell  and  his 
successor  Mr.  R.  E.  Blouin.  These  results  show  that  it 
requires  from  75  to  loi  gallons  of  water  to  produce  i  pound 
of  sugar.  In  one  instance,  where  by  irrigation  the  equiva- 
lent of  two  inches  of  rainfall  was  given  weekly  through  the 
season  to  a  plot  previously  fertilized  by  138.6  pounds 
nitrogen  from  nitrate  of  soda  and  157.5  pounds  of  potash 
as  sulphate  of  potash,  the  yield  was  the  enormous  amount 
of  54,605  pounds  of  sugar  per  acre.  The  quantity  of  water 
required  was  5,515,453  gallons,  or  an  average  of  loi  gallons 
for  each  pound  of  sugar,  but  it  is  especially  to  be  observed 
that  an  abundance  of  water  enables  cane  to  attain  a 
maximum  growth  and  yield  of  sugar  only  when  supplied 


IRRIGATION.  29 

with  sufficient  plant  food,-potash,  phosphoric  acid  and 
nitrogen.  It  is  by  the  liberal  use  of  fertilizers,  in  connect- 
tion  with  irrigation,  that  the  enormous  yields  of  Ewa 
Plantation  in  Hawaii  have  been  obtained. 


VARIETIES    OF    CANE* 

There  are  many  varieties  of  cane,  so  that  the  whole 
range  takes  in  almost  every  conceivable  characteristic, 
and  each  country  has  its  favorite  variety,  which  is  generally 
planted,  as : — 

In  Cuba  and  many  of  the  other  West  India  Islands, 
Mexico,  and  Central  and  South  America,  the  Bourdon  or 
Otaheite  (Tahiti)  ;  in  Hawaii,  the  Lahaina,  though  the 
Rose  Bamboo  is  also  found  in  its  sugar  fields  ;  in  Louisiana, 
the  purple  striped  and  its  offspring,  the  purple,  though  a 
few  estates  use  exclusively  the  light  Java,  locally  known  as 
'•  La  Pice  ;"  in  Mauritius  and  Reunion,  the  Loucier,  similar 
if  not  identical  with  the  Otaheite,  is  a  favorite  ;  in  Java, 
the  Cheribon  or  Purple  and  the  light  Java ;  in  Queens- 
land a  light  green  variety  known  locally  as  the  light 
Caledonian. 

These  may  be  considered  the  staple  varieties  of  these 
respective  localities,  but  it  is  not  to  be  inferred  that  no 
others  are  grown  ;  nearly  everywhere  others  are  on  trial  by 
the  Botanical  Gardens,  Experiment  Stations  or  progressive 
planters. 


SEEDLINGS* 

Until  recently  new  varieties  were  produced  by  nature 
only  at  rare  intervals,  through  what  are  usually  termed 
''bud  variations," — a  few  of  decided  merit  have  thus  had 
their  origin. 

About  twelve  years  ago,  and  nearly  at  the  same  time, 
Messrs.  Harrison  &  Bovell  in  Barbados  and  De  Soltwedel 
of  Java  discovered  that  cane  seed,  hitherto  looked  upon  as 
imperfect  and  barren,  were,  some  of  them,  capable  of  plant- 
producing.  This  discovery  led  to  others,  and  among  them 
that  some  varieties  arrow  with  great  regularity,  and,  by 
cross-fertilization,  produce  a  good  quantity  of  fertile  seed, 
and  that  the  product  from  each  seed  has  its  own  peculiar 
properties,  and  affords  opportunity  for  "  seed  selection." 
Many  such  promising  seedlings  have  been  developed  and 
are  now  on  trial  in  nearly  every  sugar  country.  Dr.  Kobus, 
Director  of  the  Oost  Java  Sugar  Experiment  Station,  reports 
that  over  15,000  acres  of  selected  seedlings  are  now  under 
cultivation  in  Java,  and  they  are  also  being  tested  in  many 
other  countries  ;  but  it  is  by  no  means  to  be  understood 
that  cane  seed  is  used  for  general  planting.  They  are  too 
small  and  too  many  of  them  infertile  and  their  plant  varia- 
tion too  great  to  permit  of  this  practice.  Now  and  then  a 
seed-produced  cane  is  valuable  as  against  large  numbers  of 
worthless  ones,  so  a  harvest  from  such  a  general  planting 
would  contain  no  end  of  varieties,  mostly  without  merit  or 


SEEDLINGS.  33 

profit.  In  the  practical,  scientific  search  for  valuable  varie- 
ties, the  seeds  are  planted  in  a  nursery,  the  young  plant 
transplanted  to  the  field,  and  each  one  carefully  studied  by 
a  trained  chemist.  When  one  is  found  to  combine  desirable 
qualities,  it  is  propagated  by  cuttings  (boutures),  and  if  its 
merits  seem  sufficient  to  justify  such  action,  it  is  then 
distributed  to  planters  for  trial.  In  this  way  different  varie- 
ties of  known  worth  are  crossed  for  the  purpose  of  obtain- 
ing canes  which  possess  vigor,  sugar  rich  in  quantity  and 
quality,  and  disease-resisting  vitality. 


SOILS    FOR    SUGAR    CULTURE. 

Cane-growing  soils  in  the  different  countries  vary  in 
chemical  composition  and  physical  properties,  but,  as  a 
rule,  those  rich  in  plant  food,  with  a  large  water  holding 
capacity,  are  best.  Where  irrigation  is  not  practised,  clay 
or  heavy  loam,  capable  of  carrying  a  large  amount  of 
moisture,  is  to  be  selected,  and  even  with  irrigation,  the 
soil  must  be  sufficiently  retentive  to  prevent  rapid  percolation 
and  consequent  financial  loss,  because  of  many  expensive 
irrigations  and  washing  away  of  soluble  plant  food. 

Fertile  soils  have  always  an  abundance  of  humus  or 
vegetable  matter.  Tropical  soils,  subject  to  heavy  rainfalls 
which  stimulate  luxuriant  vegetation,  are  almost  universally 
adapted  to  the  growth  of  sugar  cane  The  vegetation,  in 
its   transformation    into    humus,    furnishes    organic    acids 


34 


SOILS    FOR    SUGAR    CULTURE. 


which  decompose  the  soil  particles  into  very  fine  earth. 
Such  soils,  in  course  of  time,  become  rich  in  organic 
matter,  which  supplies  nitrogenous  food,  as  well  as  in  very 
finely  divided  earth,  with  its  mineral  supply.  Both,  but 
especially  the  humus,  retain  the  excessive  moisture  essen- 
tial to  healthy,  profitable  cane-growing. 

Hav^aiian  Soils.  As  before  stated,  the  heaviest  acre 
yields  of  sugar  in  the  world  are  in  the  irrigated  districts  of 
Hawaii.  Dr.  Maxwell  has  shown,  that  the  average  soil  of 
these  Islands  contains  from  .3  to  .4  per  cent,  lime,  .3  to  .35 
percent,  potash,  .18  to  .51  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid,  and 
.17  to  .54  per  cent,  nitrogen.  Such  fertility,  under  correct, 
systematic  irrigation  and  fertilization,  yields  from  six  to 
fifteen  tons  of  sugar  per  acre.  It  is  of  volcanic  origin,  and 
derived  from  basaltic  lava,  emitted  within  recent  geological 
epochs,  **  primitive  in  character,"  and  chemically  closely 
resembling  the  rocks  whence  it  came.  Dr.  Maxwell  makes 
three  classes : — 

1.  Dark  red,  derived  from  the  normal  lavas  by  weather- 
ing in  a  climate  of  great  heat  and  dryness. 

2.  Yellow  and  light  red  (inferior  to  the  dark  red),  derived 
from  a  class  of  lavas  which  suffered  great  alteration  through 
the  action  of  steam  and  sulphurous  vapors  at  the  time  of 
emission. 

3.  Most  fertile  of  the  three,  sedimentary  deposits 
washed  down  upon  the  coral  reefs  which  begirt  the 
Islands. 

These  soils  in  texture  resemble  pulverized  brick,  have 


SOILS    FOR    SUGAR    CULTURE.  35 

very  little  silica,  and  are  without  the  plasticity  generally 
characteristic  of  sugar  soils,  but  they  are  easily  worked  and 
yield  enormously  when  properly  fertilized  and  irrigated. 

Queensland.  The  Mackay  district  is  deficient  in  lime, 
and  the  Isis  soils  in  potash. 

Demerara.  The  cultivated  parts  of  British  Guiana  are 
the  heavy  clay  alluvial  coast  lands.  During  very  protracted 
droughts  they  sometimes  shrink  or  harden  by  contracting 
into  expanses  of  intersecting  cracks,  often  to  the  great 
injury,  or  even  destruction,  for  the  time  being,  of  all  plant 
life.  Their  analyses  by  Prof.  Harrison  show  less  than  20 
per  cent,  of  sand,  which  is  in  the  form  of  an  impalpable 
powder,  .084  per  cent,  to  .113  per  cent,  nitrogen,  .074  per 
cent,  to  .155  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid,  .382  per  cent,  to  .575 
percent,  potash  and  .184  per  cent,  to  .566  per  cent,  lime, 
and  the  natural  conclusion  is  that  physical  improvement  by 
proper  drainage  and  cultivation  is  their  great  need. 

Trinidad  and  Jamaica  sugar  lands  are  somewhat 
similar  to  those  of  Demerara,  being  stiff  clay  or  reddish  clay, 
overlying  limestone,  which  contains  over  .5  ~^er  cent, 
potash  and  nearly  .2  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid. 

Antigua  ranges  from  heavy  clay,  from  compact  volcanic 
ashes,  to  the  various  decomposed  products  or  tertiary  rocks; 
analysis  of  the  former  shows  agricultural  clay  (fine  silt  and 
clay)  present  to  the  extent  of  two-thirds  of  the  soil, — lime 
is  abundant,  over  .9  per  cent,  to  3.18  per  cent.,  potash 
rather  low,  .092   per  cent,   to  .32   per  cent.,   nitrogen  fair, 


^6  SOILS    FOR    SUGAR    CULTURE. 

,086  per  cent,  to  .114  per  cent.,  phosphoric  acid  low,  .061 
per  cent,  to  .1  per  cent. 

St.  Kittsis  sandier,  poorer  in  lime,  .54  percent.,  slightly- 
richer  in  potash,  .127  per  cent.,  and  lower  in  nitrogen,  .064 
per  cent. 

Cuba  and  Java  contain  every  s'hade  of  soil  from  the  rich 
alluvium  of  the  coast,  through  the  tertiary  and  secondary 
geological  formations,  to  the  volcanic  or  primary  rocks,  of 
the  extreme  mountain  ranges.  As  a  rule,  the  alluvium  of 
the  coast  furnishes  their  largest  and  best  sugar  areas,  and 
the  two  islands  together  are  the  largest  cane  sugar  produc- 
ers in  the  world. 

Cuba  has  long  been  known  as  the  "Gem  of  the  Antilles," 
the  island  "par  excellence"  for  sugar  cane.  The  small  part 
of  it  under  cultivation  has  produced  over  a  million  long 
tons  of  sugar  in  a  single  year,  but  on  a  per  acre  basis  that 
has  been  an  extremely  small  amount  when  compared  with 
the  enormous  returns  in  Hawaii.  This  relative  discrepancy 
is  especially  impressing  when  account  is  taken  of  product- 
iveness of  the  soil,  the  excellence  of  the  climate,  and  the  all 
but  perfect  conditions  for  growing  sugar  cane  in  Cuba.  To 
state  the  case  in  another  way,  Cuba's  soil  and  climate  are 
vastly  superior,  but  Hawaii's  yield  per  acre  is  far  in  the 
lead.  A  study  of  the  methods  of  the  two  countries  discloses 
the  reason.  Both  have  modern,  scientific  sugar  houses,  and 
skilled  mechanics  and  sugar  makers,  and  obtain  about  the 
same  amount  of  sugar  from  each  ton  of  cane  ground,  so 
the  difference   is  not  in   manufacturing,    but  in   growing. 


SOILS    FOR   SUGAR    CULTURE.  37 

Hawaii  uses  fertilizers  in  large  quantities  and  of  approved 
composition,  steam-plows  and  present-day  agricultural  im- 
plements, and  cultivates  thoroughly  and  intelligently.  Over 
two-thirds  of  the  entire  area  devoted  to  cane  in  Hawaii  is 
plant  cane,  less  than  one-third  is  rattoon,  and  of  this  third 
but  little  is  carried  beyond  one  year.  A  stubble  crop  with  a 
yield  of  less  than  thirty  tons  of  cane  per  acre  is  considered 
unprofitable.  The  secret  of  success  in  Hawaii  is  the  ap- 
plication of  business  methods,  the  use  of  fertilizers  and  the 
frequent  replanting  of  the  fields  in  cane.  In  Cuba,  the  de- 
plorable conditions  which  now  prevail  must  give  way  to 
improvement  caused  by  example  and  competition,  and  it  is 
a  safe  prediction  that  the  progressive  methods  of  fertilization 
and  cultivation  of  Hawaii  will  be  introduced  and  make  this 
island  what  it  deserves  to  be — "the  sugar-bowl  of  the  world." 
Sugar  cane  will  then,  as  it  did  until  recently,  furnish  the 
world's  sugar,  much  of  which,  comes  now  from  the  sugar 
beet. 

Louisiana,  which  grows  more  sugar  cane  than  any  other 
one  of  the  United  States,  owes  its  superiority,  in  this  respect, 
to  the  surpassing  fertility  of  the  delta  of  the  Mississipi  and 
its  out-lying  bayous.  The  alluvium  of  this  section  is  of  re- 
cent origin,  formed  from  the  best  soils  of  over  a  score  of 
states  which  extend  from  the  extreme  heights  of  the  Ap- 
palachians on  the  east  to  the  Rockies  on  the  west.  This 
soil  detritus,  mixed  and  commingled  by  running  water,  de- 
posited under  sunny  skies,  forms  an  area  of  perhaps  the 
richest  soil  in  the  world.    It  is  silty  or  loamy  clay  of  varying 


38  SOILS    FOR    SUGAR    CULTURE. 

physical  and  chemical  composition,  which  was  determined 
by  the  geologic  place  whence  it  came  and  the  force  which 
deposited  it.  It  must  be  thoroughly  drained  before  a  maxi- 
mum yield  can  be  expected.  This  is  accomplished  by  a 
system  of  canals,  panel  (cross)  ditches  and  parallel  ditches, 
quarter  drains  and  ridged  rows,  to  be  described  further  on. 

The  Red  River  and  its  outlying  bayous,  the  Teche,  Boeuf, 
Rapides,  De  Glaze,  etc.,  have  continuous  alluvial  bottoms 
of  red  sand  and  clay,  extremely  fertile,  easy  of  cultivation 
and  susceptible  of  good  drainage,  on  which  some  of  the  best 
sugar  estates  are  located. 

The  prairies  of  the  southwestern  part  of  the  state  are 
derived  from  old  bluff  hills,  which  once  skirted  the  western 
edge  of  the  then  Mississippi  River  and  are  similar  to  those 
of  East  Baton  Rouge,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  river,  where 
much  cane  is  grown.  These  soils  are  brown  loams,  mainly 
silts,  and  very  productive.  The  following  is  about  the 
average  of  the  three  types  described  above  : 

Mississippi  Alluvial, — .2  to  i.  per  cent,  lime  ;  .1  to  .9  per 
cent,  potash;  .07  to  .2  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid, 
and  .08  to  .15  per  cent,  nitrogen. 

Red  River  Alluvial, — .2  to  3.  per  cent,  lime  ;  .08  to  2 
per  cent,  potash  ;  .09  to  .12  per  cent,  phosphoric 
acid,  and  .06  to  .1  per  cent,  nitrogen. 

Bluff  Prairie, — .12  to  .4  per  cent,  lime  ;  .1  to  .2  per 
cent,  potash  ;  .06  to  i  3  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid, 
and  .07  to  1.2  per  cent,  nitrogen. 

The  Texas  sugar  lands  of  Oyster  Creek  and  the   Brazos 


SOILS    FOR    SUGAR    CULTURE.  39 

bottoms  are  similar  in  origin  and  composition   to  those  of 
the  Red  River. 

Atlantic  Coast  Belt.  A  large  area,  usually  styled  the 
piney  woods  coast  belt,  extends  from  Carolina  to  Texas  on 
the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts.  Its  soil  is  sandy  and  well- 
drained,  but  in  spite  of  its  being  thin  and  poor,  sugar  cane 
is  grown  in  small  quantities  throughout  its  entire  extent. 
The  cane  is  converted  into  syrup  mostly  for  home  con- 
sumption, still  a  considerable  surplus  is  marketed  in  the 
north  and  west.  Great  improvement  is  being  made  and 
fairly  good  cane  crops  raised  by  the  judicious  rotation  of 
other  crops  and  an  intelligent  use  of  fertilizers.  The  in- 
dustry is  constantly  growing  and  gives  promise  of  soon  be- 
coming second  in  value  to  the  cotton  crop  alone.  Nowhere, 
perhaps,  are  the  effects  of  commercial  fertilizers  more 
marked  than  on  these  very  soils  which  annually  use 
many  tons  of  them. 


COMPOSITION  OF  CANE. 

Cane  varies  in  its  chemical  composition,  which  depends 
upon  many  influences,  such  as  variety  cultivated,  country 
where  grown,  soil,  season  and  maturity.  In  Louisiana  and 
other  southern  states  of  the  United  States,  it  varies  with 
the  quantity  grown  upon  an  acre,  the  time  of  harvests,  and 
whether  plant  or  stubble. 

Prof.  Stubbs,  at  the  Louisiana  Sugar  Experiment  Station, 
found  that  a  ton  of  purple  cane,  cut  for  the   mill,  had   135 


40 


COMPOSITION    OF    CANE. 


lbs.  roots,  844  lbs.  leaves,  and  532  lbs.  lops,  or  a  total  of  15 11 
lbs.,  making  with  the  ton  of  cane  35 11  lbs. 

A  ton  of  striped  cane  had,  similarly,  113  lbs.  roots,  656 
lbs.  leaves  and  385  lbs.  tops,  or  1,154  lbs.,  making  with  the 
ton  of  cane  3,154  lbs. 

The  following  table  shows  the  valuable  soil  ingredients 
removed  by  a  ton  of  cane  and  its  roots  and  foliage  : 

Purple   cane. 


NITROGEN. 

PHOS- 
PHORIC 
ACID. 

POTASH. 

LIME. 

MINERAL 
MATTER. 

ORGANIC 
MATTER. 

Roots,    lbs.             

Stalks,     "    

0.17 
1.08 

0.72 
1.01 

2.98 

0.10 

1.04 
0.30 
0.19 

0.09 

1.22 
0.69 
0.52 

0.14 
0.52 
1.32 
0.56 

2.99 
11    18 

20.17 
10.29 

31.48 

407.14 

Leaves    "    

134.66 

Tops,       "    

84  19 

Total 

1.63 

2.52 

2.54 

44.63 

657.47 

Striped   cane. 


.NITROGEN. 
0    17 

0.88 
0.55 

0.78 

PHOS 
PHORIC 
ACID. 

0.10 
1.30 

0.26 
0.41 

POTASH. 
0.19 

2.34 
1.13 
0.52 

LIME. 
0.11 

0.58 
1.04 
0.80 

2.03 

MINERAL 
MATTER. 

ORGANIC 
MATTER. 

Roots     lbs 

2.81 

12.40 

17.95 
8.43 

29.81 

Stalks,      "    

392.52 

Leaves,  "    

Tops        "    

102.40 
63.51 

Total 

2.38 

2.07 

4.18 

41.59 

588.24 

In  plantation  growing  the  roots  are  left  in  the  ground, 
and,  if  the  tops  and  leaves  are  plowed  under,  a  ton  of  cane 
only  removes  what  is  contained  in  the  stalks  ;  that  is  to  say, 
for  the  purple  variety,  1.08  lbs.  nitrogen;  1.04  lbs.  phos- 
phoric acid;  1.22  lbs.  potash,  and  0.52  lbs.  lime.  For  the 
striped,  .88  lbs.  nitrogen;  1.30  lbs.  phosphoric  acid;  2.34 
lbs.  potash  and  0.58  lbs.  lime. 

If  the  leaves  and  tops  be  burned  in  the  field, — a  custom 


COMPOSITION    OF    CANE, 


41 


prevailing  in  Louisiana, — the  nitrogen  in  them  is  dissipated, 
and  the  other  mineral  ingredients  returned  to  the  soil. 
The  nitrogen  removed  will  then  be,  for  the  purple  cane, 
2.81  lbs.  per  ton,  and,  for  striped,  2.21  lbs.,  and  the  entire 
loss  for  the  former  variety,  2.81  lbs.  nitrogen,  1.04  lbs.  phos- 
phoric acid,  1.22  lbs.  potash,  and  .52  lbs.  of  lime;  and  for  the 
latter  2.21  lbs.  nitrogen,  1.30  lbs.  phosphoric  acid,  2.34  lbs. 
potash  and  .58  lbs.  lime. 

Dr.  Maxwell  gives  analyses  of  Rose  Bamboo  and  Lahaina 
varieties  and  their  trash  as  grown  in  Hawaii  as  follows: 

J^ose  JSam^oo  .'-Nitrogen  .074  per  cent.,  potash  .144  per 
cent.,  phosphoric  acid  .045  per  cent.,  lime  0.40  per  cent. 

LaAaina  .--N'ltrogQn  .077  per  cent ,  potash  .077  per  cent., 
phosphoric  acid  .031  per  cent.,  lime  .031  per  cent. 

In  the  dried  trash  there  were  in  : 

J?!ose  Bamboo  .--Nitrogen  .53  per  cent,,  potash  i  30  per 
cent.,  phosphoric  acid  .13  per  cent,,  lime  ,47  per  cent. 

Lahaina  :-N\\rogex\  .42  percent.,  potash  1.36  per  cent., 
phosphoric  acid  .  11  per  cent.,  lime  .44  per  cent. 

In  the  report  for  1900  the  yields  (including  trash)  and 
analyses  of  m_any  varieties  are  given;  by  calculation  the 
following  amounts  are  found  to  have  been  removed  by 
each  ton  of  cane,  and  its  trash  : 


Rose  Bamboo 

Lahaina 

Louisiana  Purple, 
Louisiana  Striped 


PHOS- 

NITROGEN. 

PHORIC 
ACID. 

J'OTASH. 

5.91bs. 

2.0  lbs. 

16.60  lbs. 

3.9    " 

2.4     " 

IS  70   ■• 

7.1    " 

2.45   " 

22  50   '• 

4.8    " 

2  10   " 

19.30  '• 

5.0  lbs. 
4.4    " 
7  0" 
4.4    '• 


42 


COMPOSITION    OF    CANE. 


Extensive  investigations  as  to  the  composition  of  sugar 
cane,  were  made  by  Prof.  Prinsen  Gerlichs  and  Prof.  Potter 
of  Java;  their  figures  for  a  ton  of  cane,  with  trash  are  :  2.72 
lbs.  nitrogen,  2.22  lbs.  phosphoric  acid,  8.10  lbs,  potash  and 
1.93  lbs.  lime.  On  the  same  basis,  Kruger  gives  for  Cheri- 
bon  2.1  lbs.  nitrogen,  4.3  lbs  phosphoric  acid,  4.3  lbs. 
potash  and  1.8  lbs.  lime. 

C.  J.  von  Lockeren,  of  Java,  gives  the  following  table 
on  the  basis  of  the  yield  of  an  entire  acre  : 


78.701  lbs.  Cane 

5,430  lbs.  Tops  an;'  Green  Leaves 
9,523  lbs.  Dry  Leaves 

Total 


NITROGEN. 


40.9 
10.5 
23.6 


75.0 


PHOS- 
PHORIC 
ACID. 


85.0 

83.5 

52.6 


171  1 


40.1 
4.9 

7  7 


52.7 


16.5 

4.9 

50.5 

71  9 


From  these  reliable  conclusions,  based  on  experiments 
in  countries  far  apart,  the  following  general  deduction  may 
fairly  be  made  :  The  amoxmt  of  fertilizing  ingredients 
taken  up  by  a  ton  of  cane  and  its  accompanying  foliage, 
etc.  varies  greatly  in  different  soils  and  climates,  and  the 
percentage  of  stalks  to  foliage  takes  as  wide  a  range.  In 
Louisiana  the  foliage  to  a  ton  of  stalks  is  much  greater 
than  in  tropical  countries,  while  the  dry  matter  in  the  trash 
is  much  less  than  that  in  the  cane. 

In  Hawaii,  Dr.  Maxwell  found  the  latter  to  be  to  the 
former  as  44  and  47  is  to  52,  showing  that  the  composition 
of  the  foliage  varies  with  the  variety,  age  and  climate,  and 
that  the  ash  changes  in  quantity  and   composition   as  the 


COMPOSITION    OF    CANE.  45 

foliage  matures.  The  stalk  is  nearer  constant  than  the 
other  parts  of  the  cane,  and  even  in  it  the  amount  of 
potash  taken  up,  depending  largely  upon  the  variety  and 
the  soil  growing  it. 

This  consideration  of  the  heavy  draft  of  the  plant  food, 
especialy  of  potash  and  nitrogen,  which  a  large  cane  crop 
makes  on  the  soil,  leads  to  study  of  the  best  way  to  keep  up 
its  fertility. 


FERTILIZING  REQUIREMENTS  OF  CANE* 

Cane,  like  every  other  plant,  needs  for  its  growth  a 
number  of  chemical  substances,  but,  as  most  natural  soils 
supply  a  large  part  of  these  ingredients  in  abundance,  it  is 
necessary  here  to  consider  only  those  which,  in  cultivated 
soils,  are  frequently  more  or  less  lacking.  These  are  potash, 
phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen,  and  their  relative  relation  to 
the  cane  crop  has  been  the  subject  of  important  investigation 
and  study  at  the  Java  Experiment  Station.  It  was  found 
that  the  absence  of  either  of  them  was  fatal  to  the  life  of 
the  cane  plant,  and  that,  with  an  insufficient  supply  of  any 
one  of  them,  the  plant  grew  slowly;  but  when  all  were 
present  in  ample  quantities,  it  grew  rapidly. 

The  skilled  cane-grower  ascertains  what  his  soil  requires 
in  the  way  of  potash,  phosphoric  acid  or  nitrogen,  or  all 
three  of  them,  in  order  to  produce  strong,  healthy  plants, 
and  then  supplies  that  in  which  it  is  deficient.     The  object 


46  FERTILIZING    REQUIREMENTS    OF    CANE. 

of  the  manufacturer  of  commercial  fertilizers  is  to  meet  the 
exact  needs  of  the  planter,  and  so,  while  he  sells  each  one 
of  these  separately,  he  also  compounds  them,  by  means  of 
modern  machinery,  into  what  are  styled  "  complete  fertil- 
izers," which  are  mixed  and  blended  to  suit  the  certain  soils 
and  the  needs  of  the  crop  to  be  grown.  Different  forms  of 
the  same  chemical  may  differ  in  action  and  effect,  so  form 
itself  is  to  be  considered  in  an  economical  administration  of 
an  estate.  The  following  are  the  principal  fertilizer  in- 
gredients and  their  sources. 

Potash.  The  Stassfurt  mines  of  Germany  have  placed 
within  the  reach  of  almost  every  civilized  farmer  and  planter 
every  useful  form  of  potash,  convenient  to  handle  and 
cheap  in  price. 

Sulphate  of  Potash  is  sold  in  two  forms,  one  containing 
50  per  cent,  and  the  other  27  per  cent,  potash.  Sulphate  is 
esteemed  best  for  potatoes,  tobacco  and  sugar  cane,  but 
both  potash  and  sulphuric  acid  are  plant  foods,  and  cannot 
possibly  injure  the  soil  by  their  excessive  use. 

Muriate  of  Potash^  containing  50^  or  more  of  potash,  is 
the  most  concentrated  potash  fertilizer  in  the  market,  is 
highly  esteemed,  and  furnishes  potash  at  the  lowest  price 
per  pound.  On  soils  deficient  in  lime,  the  sulphate  is  better 
than  the  muriate,  since  the  muriate  converts  lime  into  a 
soluble  chloride,  which  leaches  out  of  the  soil.  For  a  simi- 
lar reason  soils  already  charged  abundantly  with  common 
salt,  are  better  served  with  the  sulphate. 

Kainit,  a   crude     form   of  potash   salt,   contains  on  an 


FERTILIZING    REQUIREMENTS    OF    CANE.  47 

average  of  12.4  per  cent,  of  pure  potash.  Besides  potash, 
it  contains  chloride  of  sodium  and  magnesium.  For  sugar 
cane,  concentrated  potash,  especially  the  sulphate,  is  to  be 
preferred  to  the  kainit. 

Wood  ashes  formerly  were  our  only  commercial  source 
of  this  important  ingredient,  but  now  they  are  rarely  found 
on  the  market,  and  are  so  uncertain  in  strength  that  they 
cannot  be  recommended. 

Phosphoric  Acid  is  supplied  to  the  planter  in  many 
forms;  reference  has  already  been  made  to  bones,  tankage 
and  fish  scrap.  Mineral  phosphates  or  rock  phosphates  are 
found  abundantly  in  South  Carolina,  Florida  and  Tennessee 
and  natural  guanos  on  several  of  the  ''rainy"  islands  of  the 
Caribbean  Sea  and  Pacific  Ocean.  These  guanos  are  the  re- 
mains of  the  ordure  of  fish-eating  birds,  the  nitrogen  having 
been  washed  out  by  rains.  All  of  these  materials  contain 
insoluble  forms  of  phosphoric  acid,  and,  in  their  natural 
state,  have  but  little  agricultural  value;  to  be  immediately 
available,  on  most  soils,  these  raw  phosphates  must  be 
treated  with  acid  (generally  sulphuric  acid).  This  treat- 
ment converts  them  into  acid  phosphate  or  superphos- 
phate, where  the  phosphoric  acid  is  in  a  soluble  (available) 
form,  which  is  that  most  extensively  used,  and  in  the  manu- 
facture and  sale  of  which  millions  of  dollars  of  capital  find 
profitable  employment. 

Peruvian  Guano  is  also  a  natural  or  bird  guano,  coming 
from  rainless  countries,  so  that  it  still  retains  its  nitrogen, 
and  a  part  of  its  phosphoric  acid,  in   available  form.      The 


4<^  FERTILIZING    REQUIREMENTS    OF    CANK. 

deposits  of  Peruvian  guano  are  now  largely  exhausted. 
Another  form  of  phosphoric  acid,  now  offered,  is  a  by- 
product obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  from 
ores  rich  in  phosphorus.  The  manufacturing  process  is 
known  as  the  'Thomas  Gilchrist  patent,"  and  this  by-product 
is  sometimes  styled  "Thomas  Slag,"  as  well  as  "Basic  Slag." 
It  contains  about  14  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  available 
to  plants,  though  not  as  soluble  as  that  contained  in  acid 
phosphate,  and  also,  a  large  amount  of  caustic  lime,  on  ac- 
count of  which  it  should  not  be  mixed  with  fertilizers  con- 
taining ammonia,  because  it  would  decompose  such  ma- 
terials and  release  the  volatile  ammonia. 

Nitrogen  is  supplied  to  the  trade  in  many  forms  : 
(i)  Nitrate  of  Soda ^  a  product  of  the  mines  of  Chili. 
This  form  of  nitrogen  (nitrates)  is  that  into  which  all  others 
are  resolved  before  they  can  serve  as  plant  food.  In  what- 
ever form  it  is  supplied  it  must  be  rendered  available  by 
the  work  of  microbes,  acting  in  an  areated,  well  drained 
soil,  upon  the  nitrogenous  matter  present.  Just  here  comes 
a  suggestion,  that  many  of  the  failures  in  applying  organic 
forms  of  nitrogen  to  cane  soils  may  be  due  to  improper 
mechanical  conditions,  which  prevent  a  rapid  multiplication 
of  microbes,  and  thereby  retard  the  transformation  into  ni- 
trates. This  process  of  nitrification  is  an  inherent  concomi- 
tant of  tilth,  and  soils  in  excellent  tilth  can  consume  and 
appropriate  large  quantities  of  organic  nitrogen.  Nitrate 
of  soda  readily  leaches  from  a  soil,  especially  an  open,  por- 
ous, sandy  one,  whenever  not  taken  up  by  growing  plants, 


FERTILIZING    REQUIREMENTS    OF    CANE.  49 

and  hence,  to  obtain  its  full  effects,  it  should  be  applied  to 
crops,  at  short  intervals,  in  small  quantities. 

(2)  Sulphate  of  Ammonia^  a  product  of  the  distillation  of 
coal  and  bones,  is  a  by-product  of  the  coal-gas  factories  of 
large  cities.  It  contains  a  large  percentage  of  nitrogen 
(22  per  cent.)  and  is  an  excellent  form  for  cane. 

(3)  Dried  Bloody  a  product  of  slaughter  houses,  red  or 
black  in  color,  according  to  the  method  used  in  desiccation, 
contains  from  12  to  i8  per  cent,  nitrogen,  and  is  esteemed 
as  one  of  the  best  forms  of  organic  nitrogen.  It  is  largely 
used  to  supply  the  nitrogen  in  the  compounding  of  com- 
mercial fertilizers. 

(4)  Tankage^  another  refuse  of  slaughter  houses,  consists 
in  the  waste  materials  incident  to  preparing  various  meat 
products  for  market.  Its  composition  is  variable,  and  its 
availability  as  a  fertilizer  depends  largely  upon  the  charac- 
ter as  well  as  composition  of  the  materials  of  which  it  is 
composed.  It  contains  a  variable  quantity  of  phosphoric 
acid,  and  is  a  favorite  nitrogen  fertilizer  with  the  sugar 
planters  of  Louisiana. 

(5)  Fish  Scraps  especially  that  obtained  in  large  quan- 
tities from  the  Menhaden  of  the  Atlantic  coast,  is  used 
largely  by  manufacturers  of  commercial  fertilizers  as  a 
source  of  nitrogen.  The  oil  is  extracted,  and  after  that 
the  steamed  and  dried  residue,  more  or  less  finely  ground, 
is  sold  as  fertilizer,  which,  as  it  retains  the  meat  and  bones 
of  the  fish,  like  tankage,  contains  considerable  phosphoric 
acid. 


50  FERTILIZING    REQUIREMENTS    OF    CANE. 

(6)  Bones,  both  raw  and  steamed,  are  extensively  used 
for  fertilizers,  especially  on  soils  filled  with  vegetable 
matter.  They  are  usually  finely  ground,  and  their  good  re- 
sults are  frequently  due  more  to  the  small  percentage  of 
nitrogen  which  they  contain  than  to  their  large  content  of 
phosphoric  acid,  which,  for  the  most  part,  is  in  an  insoluble 
and  unavailable  form. 

(7)  Cottonseed  Meal^  gluten  meal,  linseed  meal,  castor 
pomace,  sunflower  cake,  peanut  cake,  Chinese  soja  bean 
cake,  rape  seed  cake,  niger  seed  cake, — are  all  vegetable 
forms  of  nitrogen,  obtained  by  extracting,  under  pressure, 
the  oil  from  the  various  seeds  and  grinding  the  residue  into 
powder.  In  Louisiana  and  other  parts  of  the  South,  cotton- 
seed meal,  which  contains  about  7^  nitrogen,  3^  phosphoric 
acid  and  2^  potash,  is  extensively  used  as  a  fertilizer  for 
cane,  cotton,  corn   etc. 


STABLE  MANURES  AND  GREEN  MANURING* 

Stable  manure  may  be  used  on  the  cane  crop  with  ad- 
vantage, but  its  available  amount  is  usually  so  small  and 
insufficient,  that  it  is  of  little  practical  importance  to  sugar 
planters.  Where  stable  manure  can  be  had,  it  is  useful  to 
the  cane,  especially  for  its  nitrogen  ;but  it  is  comparatively 
poor  in  potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  both  of  which  must  be 
supplemented  in  proper  proportion  if  a  full  benefit  be  ex- 
pected. 


STABLE    MANURES    AND    GREEN    MANURING.  5 1 

Green  manuring,  that  is,  the  raising  of  leguminous  crops 
in  rotation,  like  in  other  agricultural  industries,  is  useful  in 
sugar  growing.  Green  manuring  is  regularly  employed  in 
Louisiana  in  a  tri-ennial  rotation  of  corn  with  cow-peas, 
plant  cane  and  stubble  cane.  To  this  purpose  the  cow-pea 
is  well  adapted  throughout  the  cane  growing  sections  of 
the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  states,  while  in  Barbados  the  Bengal 
Bean  (Mucuna  pruriens  var.)  has  produced  the  best  results, 
yielding  a  crop  of  17,040  pounds  per  acre,  containing  120 
pounds  of  nitrogen.  The  indiscriminate  growth  of  legum- 
inous catch  crops  in  Barbados  is,  however,  not  recommend- 
ed, because  of  the  evaporation  of  moisture  from  the  great 
extent  of  leaf  surface.  Many  soils  there  are  underlaid,  at  a 
aepth  oi  lyi  to  ^h  feet,  by  a  porous  stratum  of  coral  rock 
of  great  thickness,  and  so,  with  the  capacity  of  the  soil  for 
storing  water  limited,  if  a  leguminous  crop  be  harvested 
late  in  the  year,  the  young  cane  plant  cannot  find  enough 
stored  moisture  to  secure  an  early  growth  in  the  spring. 
Under  such  circumstances  and  conditions  it  is  recommend- 
ed that  all  such  crops  be  grown  early  and  cut  not  later  than 
the  middle  of  September,  to  give  ample  time  for  tillage  and 
the  accumulation  of  moisture  near  the  surface.  Local  con- 
ditions must  control  action  in  this,  as  in  every  other  precept 
of  science,  but,  whenever  existing  conditions  permit  the 
growing  of  a  strong,  vigorous,  leguminous  catch  crop,  such 
action  is  strongly  recommended. 

The  benefit  derived  from  a  rotation  with  legumes  con- 
sists rnainly  in  the  large  amount  of  nitrogen  which  these 


52  STABLE    MANURES    AND    GREEN    MANURING. 

crops  gather  from  the  air  and  furnish  to  the  succeeding 
cane  crop  through  their  decaying  stalks  and  leaves.  A  crop 
of  cow-peas  (dry)  of  4500  lbs.  per  acre  will  contain  ap- 
proximately 65  lbs.  of  nitrogen,  mostly  gathered  from  the 
air,  without  cost  to  the  grower,  and  corresponding  to  420 
lbs.  of  nitrate  of  soda. 

It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  these  legumes,  greedy  feed- 
ers as  they  are  on  the  nitrogen  of  the  air,  need  considerable 
amounts  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  both  of  which  need 
to  be  supplied  to  the  soil  so  that  a  heavy  crop  of  legumes 
may  be  produced  and  a  correspondingly  large  amount  of 
nitrogen  acquired  free  of  cost.  An  application  of  300  lbs. 
of  acid  phosphate,  and  100  lbs.  of  muriate  of  potash  per 
acre  is  advisable  for  cow-peas  and  other  legumes. 


FERTILIZER  REQUIREMENTS   OF  CANE  SOILS* 

By  the  chemical  analysis  of  a  crop,  we  can  learn  the 
quantities  of  potash,  phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen  required 
to  produce  it.  It  has  already  been  stated  in  the  preceding 
pages  that  growing  sugar  cane  needs  very  large  quantities 
of  potash  and  nitrogen,  and  smaller  amounts  of  phosphoric 
acid. 

If  the  cane  growing  soil  were  without  plant  food,  all  of 
which  must  be  artificially  applied,  the  question  of  manuring 


FERTILISER   REQUIREMENTS   OF    CANE    SOILS.  53 

would  be  one  of  simple  calculation  of  the  amounts  of 
fertilizer  ingredients  contained  in  the  crop  ; — but  there 
is  already  present  in  the  soil  a  certain  amount  of  such 
food  available  to  the  plant,  with  no  need  of  supplying  it 
artificially.  Every  ambitious,  scientific,  practical  sugar 
planter  asks  himself  the  following  questions  : 

1.  What  quantities  of  phosphoric  acid,  potash  and  ni- 

trogen do  my  soils  need  for  the  production  of 
good  yields  ? 

2.  In  what  forms  shall  I  supply  the  fertilizing  elements? 

A  chemical  analysis  of  a  soil  discloses  the  quantities  of 
each  plant  food  ingredient  present  in  it,  but  as  the  larger 
part  of  its  potash,  phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen  exists  in  an 
insoluble,  unavailable  form,  it  is  far  more  important  to  learn 
what  and  how  much  is  availably  present.  Unfortunately 
chemical  science  has  not  yet  succeeded  in  finding  a  method 
whereby  the  available  can  be  distinguished  from  the  non- 
available  plant  food  contained  in  a  soil.  Some  such  methods 
were  designed  and  are  now  used  by  some  chemists,  but  it  is 
the  prevailing  opinion  of  scientists  that  accurate  and  reli- 
able information  is  not  conveyed  thereby,  and  that  its  near- 
est approach  is  reached  through  the  indirect  way  of  so- 
called  field  or  fertilizer  experiments.  Such  judiciously 
planned  and  carefully  conducted  experiments  have  been 
made  in  many  cane-growing  countries,  and  valuable  inform- 
ation obtained  and  conclusions  drawn  from  them.  The 
following  is  a  summarizing  and  general  review  of  such  ob- 
servations in  the  several  countries : 


54  FERTILIZER    REQUIREMENTS    OF    CANE    SOILS. 

In  Hawaii,  which  practices  the  heaviest  fertilizing  and 
secures  the  largest  yield  of  sugar  per  acre,  the  greatest 
variation  and  widest  range  in  soil,  rainfall,  irrigation  and 
cultivation  is  found.  Mr.  Chas.  F.  Eckart,  the  present  di- 
rector of  the  Hawaiian  Experiment  Station,  makes  the  fol- 
lowing report  as  to  the  fertilizers  successfully  used  on  the 
four  cane  growing  islands. 

Oahii,  8.50  to  14.60  per  cent,  potash,  in  the  form  of  sul- 
phate of  potash,  7  to  15  per  cent,  available  phosphoric  acid, 
and  4.7  to  7.1  per  cent,  nitrogen,  in  three  forms, — nitrate  of 
soda,  sulphate  of  ammonia,  and  organic  material. 

Maui^  4.13  to  17.34  per  cent,  potash,  5.7  to  14.26  per 
cent,  phosphoric  acid,  and  5.5  to  9.7  per  cent,  nitrogen. 

Kauai^  4.89  to  10. i  per  cent,  potash,  5.68  to  9.39  per 
cent,  phosphoric  acid,  and  6.06  to  9.91  per  cent,  nitrogen. 

Hawaii^  4  03  to  22.54  per  cent,  potash,  5.29  to  14.61  per 
cent,  phosphoric  acid,  and  3.25  to  10.42  per  cent,  nitrogen. 
This  island  possesses  a  diversity  of  conditions,  to  each  of 
which  it  conforms  in  applying  mineral  fertilizer.  Where 
heavy  rainfalls  prevail,  organic  nitrogen  washes  out  less, 
and  is  preferred;  and  no  nitrate  of  soda  and  little  sulphate 
of  ammonia  is  used.  In  the  Hamakua  district,  the  nitrogen 
is  in  the  form  of  sulphate  of  ammonia,  the  phosphoric  acid 
as  acid  phosphate,   and  potash  as  sulphate  of  potash. 

Experiments  in  Honolulu  with  plant  cane  and  first  year 
rattoons  gave,  per  acre,  from  different  combinations  of 
fertilizers : 


FERTILIZER    REQUIREMENTS    OF    CANE    SOILS. 


55 


Results  of  Experiments  on  Plant  Cane  harvested  in  1899. 


KIND    OF    FERTILIZERS    APPLIED. 


Unfertilized 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric  Acid 

Potash 

Phosphoric  Acid  and  Nitrogen 

Potash  and  Phosphoric  Acid 

Potash  and  Nitrogen 

Potash,  Phosphoric  Acid  and  Nitrogen. 


POUNDS  OF 

CANE 
PER  ACRE. 


140,880 

172,040 
144,480 
171,280 
170,040 
170,120 
182,200 
171,520 


PER  CENT, 

SUCROSE  IN 

CANE. 


15.52 

15.12 
15  15 
14.7.3 
14  41 
14  73 
14.95 
14  89 


POUNDS  OF 

SUGAR 
PER  ACRE. 


21,832 

25,463 
21.842 
25,201 
24,466 
25.041 
27,2.30 
25,493 


Results  of  Experiments  on  Rattoons  harvested  in  1900. 


KIND    OF    FERTILIZERS    APPLIED. 


Unfertilized 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric  Acid 

Potash 

Phosphoric  Acid  and  Nitrogen 

Potash  and  Phosphoric  Acid 

Potash  and  Nitrogen 

Potash,  Phosphoric  Acid  and  Nitrogen . 


POUNDS  OF 

CANE 
PER  ACRE 


126,424 
174  636 
144.715 
151,780 
210,16] 
153,068 
222,134 
221,297 


Average 175,526 


PER  CENT. 

SUCROSE  IN 

CANE. 


16.85 
14  10 
15.65 
15.81 
13.53 
14.55 
13.85 
13.80 


14.68 


POUNDS  OF 

SUGAR 
PER  ACRE. 


21  086 

24,631 
22,639 
23,985 
28,463 
22,272 
31,008 
29,265 


25,419 


The  fertilizer  applied  in  the  rattoon  experiment  furnished 
182  pounds  nitrogen,  255  pounds  actual  potash,  and  148 
pounds  phosphoric  acid,  equivalent  to  920  pounds  sulphate 
of  ammonia  or  1137  pounds  nitrate  of  soda,  510  pounds 
sulphate  of  potash,  and  1000  pounds  acid  phosphate.  The 
most  profitable  combination  was  nitrogen  and  potash,  which 
produced  an  increase  of  9,922  pounds  of  sugar  over  the 
unfertilized  plot. 


56  FERTILIZER    REQUIREMENTS    OF    CANE    SOILS. 

In  Louisiana^  cane  is  grown  only  on  the  alluvial  soil,  and 
its  Sugar  Experiment  Station  has  concluded  that  a  fertilizer, 
rich  in  nitrogen  with  a  small  quantity  of  available  phosphoric 
acid,  is  best  suited  to  it.  The  proportion  of  nitrogen  is  in- 
creased on  rattoons  and  succession  plant  cane. 

Throughout  the  Georgia  and  Florida  coast  region,  mix- 
tures of  cottonseed  meal,  acid  phosphate  and  kainit  are 
almost  exclusively  used,  and  produce  good  results. 

Barbados  finds  nitrogen,  preferably  nitrate  of  soda  and 
sulphateof  ammonia,  most  effective;  phosphoric  acid  in  acid 
phosphates  is  beneficial  when  used  in  moderation,  but  dimin- 
ishes the  yield  when  applied  in  excessive  quantities 

Demerara  derives  the  most  benefit  from  nitrogen  as 
sulphate  of  ammonia,  with  Thomas  slag,  the  most  effective 
source  of  phosphoric  acid. 

The  Leeward  Islands  have,  apparently,  no  great  demand 
for  nitrogen,  although  on  soils  not  recently  treated  with  pen 
manure,  its  results  are  marked.  Phosphates  do  not  increase 
their  cane  yield,  but  in  many  instances  decrease  it,  while 
potash  with  nitrogen  gives  their  largest  yields. 

In  a  publication  of  the  Imperial  Department  of  Agri- 
culture for  the  West  Indies,  Francis  Watts  shows  that  on 
land  where  pen  manure  had  not  been  previously  used,  an 
application  of  60  pounds  potash  (120  lbs.  sulphate  of  potash) 
per  acre  produced  an  increase  of  393  pounds  of  sugar,  and 
of  2318  pounds  of  sugar,  when  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid 
were  added  to  the  potash. 


FERTILIZER    REQUIREMENTS    OF    CANE    SOILS. 


57 


Upper  Egypt  secures  the  best  results  from  *a  complete 
fertilizer  containing  potash,  phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen, 
as  shown  by  an  increase  of  2659  pounds  sugar  per  acre  in 
1900  in  experiments  conducted  by  Prof. W.  Tiemann,  Director 
of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Cheik  Fadl.  His 
tabulation  is  : 


PLOT 
NO. 

POUNDS    FERTILIZER    PER    ACRE. 

POUNDS 

SUGAR    CANE 

PER  ACRE. 

PER  CENT. 
SUGAR 
IN  THE 
CANE. 

POUNDS 

SUGAR 

PER  ACRE. 

s. 

Unfertilized 

43,494 
49  006 

47,508 

53,:  01 
55,661 

56,285 

53,583 
59,157 

13.2 
14.0 
13.8 

13.8 

IH.O 

13.9 

13.7 
14.2 

5  741 

2. 

750  lbs.  Thomas  Slag 

6  861 

8. 

150  lbs.  Sulphate  of  Potash  

6  556 

4. 

750  lbs.  Thomas  Slag ) 

7,328 
7,236 

7,824 

5. 
6. 

150  lbs.  Sulphate  of  Potash)  

188  lbs.  Nitrate  of  Soda 

188  lbs.  Nitrate  of  Soda  1 

7. 

750  lbs.   Thomas  Slag  . .  j 

188 lbs.  Nitrateof  Soda....  1 

7,341 
8  400 

8. 

150  1  bs.  Sulphate  of  Potash  ( 

188  lbs.  Nitrate  of  Soda  . . . .  ) 

750  lbs.  Thomas  Slag > 

150  lbs.  Sulphate  of  Potash  ) 

For  cane,  where  fertilizer  requirements  have  not  been 
ascertained  by  practical  experiments,  the  safest  and  best 
plan  is  to  use  that  which  contains  a  liberal  amount  of  pot- 
ash, a  moderate  amount  of  phosphoric  acid  and  an  excess 
of  nitrogen. 

•  The  best  forms  of  plant  food,  for  average  conditions, 
are:-for  potash,  high  grade  sulphate  of  potash;  for  nitrogen, 
nitrate  of  soda  and  sulphate  of  ammonia;  and  for  phosphoric 
acid,  acid  phosphate,  or,  on  some  soils,  Thomas  slag  is 
preferable. 


QUANTITY  OF  FERTILIZERS  PER  ACRE,  AND 
HOW  TO  APPLY  THEM. 

The  Hawaiians  frequently  use  a  ton  (2000  lbs.),  or  more, 
of  fertilizer  per  acre,  applying  it  at  two  different  times,  first 
at  planting,  or  soon  after  the  cane  is  well  up,  and  a  second 
time  at  the  opening  of  the  following  spring.  Mr.  Pogue  of 
Kihei  Plantation  has  successfully  applied  nitrate  of  soda 
in  the  irrigation  waters;  as  a  question  of  economy,  it  is 
proposed  to  apply  all  soluble  fertilizers  in  this  manner. 

In  Louisiana  the  amount  of  fertilizer  used  is  400  to  700 
lbs.  per  acre.  Nitrogen  in  excess  of  48  lbs.  per  acre,  which 
is  about  the  limit  of  assimilation  in  an  average  season,  has 
been  found  by  the  Experiment  Station  to  be  wasteful,  and 
phosphoric  acid  at  the  rate  of  36  lbs.  ample.  Fertilizers  are 
usually  applied  at  the  time  of  planting  or  at  the  time  of 
throwing  the  first  soil  to  the  young  cane,  whether  plant  or 
stubble,  by  manure  distributing  machines  constructed  to 
scatter  the  fertilizer  on  both  sides  of  the  row  at  the  same 
time. 

In  Barbados  AtO  to  80  lbs.  of  nitrogen,  preferably  as  2/3 
sulphate  of  ammonia  and  1/3  nitrate  of  soda,  per  acre  is 
correct;  a  small  part  applied  shortly  after  the  cane  ger- 
minates and  the  remainder  in  June  and  August,  when  the 
cane's  growth  is  most  rapid,  together  with  80  to  100  lbs.  of 
sulphate  of  potash.     Phosphates  are  not  especially  recom- 


QUANTITY    OF    FERTILIZERS    PER    ACRE.  6l 

mended,  but,  when  used,  should  contain  from  30  lbs.  (on 
rattoons)  to  40  lbs.  (on  plant  cane)  of  phosphoric  acid 
per  acre. 

For  Demerara  s  stiff  clay,  50  lbs.  of  nitrogen,  in  the 
form  of  sulphate  of  ammonia,  with  500  to  600  lbs.  finely 
ground  slag  phosphate  per  acre  is  considered  about  right 
by  Prof.  Harrison.  Both  are  applied  to  plant  cane  at  kn 
early  period  and  in  one  dressing,  but  sufficient  slag  phos- 
phate remains  in  the  soil  to  supply  the  rattoons. 


VALUE  OF  FERTILIZERS* 

Generally  speaking,  the  question  of  profit  or  loss  in  cane 
growing  turns  on  the  intelligent  selection  of  fertilizer,  the 
correct  use  of  which  frequently  doubles  a  yield. 

The  high  esteem  in  which  fertilizers  are  held  by  the 
Hawaiian  sugar  growers  may  be  inferred  from  the  large 
quantity  used  annually.  Director  Eckart  asserts  that  in 
1901,  "no  less  than  twenty-five  thousand  tons  of  commercial 
fertilizers"  were  added  to  the  Hawaiian  soils  to  satisfy  the 
demand  of  the  sugar  industry.  The  shrewd  business 
wisdom  of  this  enormous  consumption  is  made  plain  by  the 
statement  of  Dr.  Maxwell,  that  where  the  trash  of  the  cane 
is  returned  to  the  soil,  each  ton  of  sugar  produced  removes 
from  the  soil  in  cane  12.7  lbs.  nitrogen,  35.3  lbs.  potash, 
and  8.2  lbs.  phosphoric  acid.  With  the  total  sugar  yield  of 
the  islands  approaching  300,000  tons,  on  about  50,000  acres 


62  VALUE    OF    FERTILIZERS. 

of  land,  the  demand  for  this  large  quantity  of  fertilizers  is 
apparent. 

The  secret  of  a  profitable  sugar  industry  lies  in  econo- 
mically growing  robust  cane,  rich  in  sugar;  and  no  soil  is 
so  rich  as  to  continue  year  after  year  to  grow  large  and 
remunerative  crops,  unless  the  plant  food  removed  by  the 
crop  be  returned  in  the  form  of  fertilizers.  Those  sugar 
countries,  which  are  growing  the  largest  crops  of  cane  per 
acre,  are  the  most  prosperous.  A  careful  study  of  their 
practices  teaches  that  they  obtain  success  and  wealth  by 
thorough  preparation  of  the  soil,  judicious  fertilizing, 
intelligent  cultivation  (including  irrigation  when  required), 
and  an  elimination  of  rattoons  as  soon  as  their  yields  drop 
below  a  profit-producing  quantity. 

The  world's  experience  is  that  no  one  crop  can  be  grown 
continuously  and  profitably  on  the  same  unfertilized  soil, 
no  matter  how  rich  it  was  at  the  beginning.  Sugar  cane 
is  a  most  exacting  as  well  as  soil  exhausting  crop.  In  a 
report  recently  made  to  the  Queensland  Government  upon 
the  condition  of  the  sugar  industry  of  Australia,  Dr. 
Walter  Maxwell,  Director  of  the  Sugar  Experiment  Stations 
at  Brisbane,  emphasizes  the  necessity  of  feeding  and  so 
restoring  to  those  soils  their  former  fertility,  which,  accord- 
ing to  Hon.  W.  H.  Groom,  had  fallen  in  annual  yield  from 
40  tons  of  cane  in  the  beginning  to  16,  13  and  12  tons,  in 
1889,  and  according  to  the  report,  for  1900  in  North 
Mackay,  to  from  4  to  5  tons,  and,  in  other  districts,  to  from 
7  to  8  tons.     Dr.  Maxwell  says:    "The  average  yield  of  cane 


VALUE    OF    FERTILIZERS.  63 

to-day  througnout  Queensland  is  about  15  tons  per  acre,  as 
against  about  46  tons  per  acre  during  the  earlier  years  of 
the  industry."  Further  on,  after  showing  by  analyses  of 
virgin  soils  and  those  continually  cropped  with  cane,  a 
loss  of  31^  nitrogen,  42.2^  potash,  and  37.2^  lime  in  the 
latter,  he  adds:  "  Their  immediate  yielding  power  has  been 
seriously  impaired,  but  by  more  modern  methods  of  cultiva- 
tion, rendering  available  the  reserve  stores  of  plant  food 
and  by  returning  to  the  lands  those  elements  which  have 
been  and  are  being  removed,  the  producing  power  can  be 
restored."  Intelligent  cultivation,  and  a  judicious  use  of 
fertilizers  can,  without  a  doubt,  restore  the  original  produc- 
ing power  to  these  soils,  and  obtain  40  tons  of  cane  per 
acre.  More  than  that,  here  as  elsewhere,  by  the  application 
of  scientific  resources  and  intelligence,  better  and  larger 
crops  can  be  grown  than  those  first  produced  by  the 
"virgin  soil." 

Modern  methods  of  farming  and  planting  recognize  the 
value  of  fertilizers  for  every  soil  and  every  crop,  and  the 
sugar  planter,  alive  to  the  advantages  of  the  present  age, 
knows  well  that  cane  culture  is  among  the  most  intense 
agricultural  industries,  where  the  size  and  profit  of  his 
crop  is  largely  determined  by  the  intelligent  use  of  heavy 
applications  of  fertilizer. 


Composition  of  Fertilizer  flaterials  Used  as  Sources  of 

Potash. 


Pure 
Potash 
(K2O) 
PerCt. 

Lime 
Per  Ct. 

Nitro- 
gen 
Per  Ct. 

Ammonia 
Per  Ct. 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid, 
Total, 
Per  Cam 

Chlorine 
Per  Cent. 

Muriate  of  Potash 

50 
5oto55 
27  "  30 

I2i 

16"  20 

20 

20"  30 

2"8 
I"  2 

5"8 

45  to  48 
0.3  "1.5 

1-5  "2.5 
30  to  32 

42  "46 

Sulphate    of    Potash 
(high  grade) 

Sulphate    of    Potash 
Magnesia 

0.85 
I.  12 

.... 

Kainit 

Sylvinit 

Potash  Manure  Salt  20^ 

Cotton  -  Seed  -  Hull 
Ashes 

3oto55 

35  "40 
3-5 

i3toi4 

i6toi7 

Wood  -  Ashes   } 

(unleached)    j" 

Wood- Ashes  (leached) . 
Tobacco-Stems 

I  to  2 
I  toi^ 

2t03 

2i  to  3i 

Average  Composition  of  the  flost  Important 
Farm  flanures. 


FARM  MANURES. 

Nitrogen. 

Equivalent 

in 
Ammonia. 

Potash 
(K2O). 

Phosphoric  Acid 

Total. 

Lime  (CaO). 

Cow- Manure  (fresh) . . . 
Horse-Manure  (fresh) .  . 
Sheep-Manure  (fresh) . . 
Hog-Manure  (fresh)  .  .  . 

Hen-Dung  (fresh) 

Mixed  Stable  Manure . . 

0.34 

0.58 
0.83 

0.45 
1.63 
0.50 

0.41 
0.70 
1. 00 

0.54 
1.98 
0.60 

0.40 

0.53 
0.67 
0.60 
0.85 
0.63 

0.  16 

0.28 
0.23 
0.  19 

1-54 
0.26 

0.31 
0.  21 

0.33 
0.08 
0.24 
0.70 

Composition  of  Fertilizer  Materials  Used 
as  Sources  of  Nitrogen. 


Nitrate  of  Soda 

Sulphate  of  Ammonia 

Dried-Blood  (high  grade). .  . 
Dried-Blood  (low  grade)  .  .  . 

Concentrated  Tankage 

Tankage 

Tankage 

Dried  Fish- Scrap 

Cotton-Seed  Meal    

Castor  Pomace 

Tobacco  Stems 


Nitrogen. 


15  to  16 

19 
12 
10 
II 

5 
1\ 
9i 
6i 

5 
2 


22 
12 1 
II 

i4i 
6 

9 
1  [ 

7i 
6 

3 


Equivalent 

in 
Ammonia. 


18  to  19^ 
23   "  26 

i7i 


i4i 
12 

i3i 
6 

9 

Hi 

8 
6 

2i 


14^ 
15 

7i 
II 

I3i 
9 

1\ 
4 


Potash 
(K^O). 


5  to  5 


Phosphoric  Add 
Total. 


3 

I 

II 


to 


5 
2 

14 
loi 


2% 

2^ 

about i^ 


Composition  of  Fertilizer  Materials  Used 
as  Sources  of  Phosphoric  Acid. 


So  Carol'a  Phos.  Rock 

So.  Carolina  Acid 
Phosphate 

Florida  Land  Rock.  . 

Florida  Pebble  Phos- 
phate  

Florida  Acid  Phos- 
phate   

Tennessee  Phosphate 

Tennessee  Acid  Phos 
phate 

Bone-Black  (spent). . 

Bone-Black(dissolved) 

Bone-Meal 

Bone  (dissolved)  . . . 

Peruvian  Guano  . , . 


Nitro- 
gen. 


2"3 

6  "  10 


Equiv- 
alent in 
Ammo- 
nia. 


3  to5i 
2i"3i 
7i"i2 


Potash 
(K,Oj. 


1-1  to  4 


Phosphoric  Acid. 


Total.     Available.  Insoluble 


26  to  27 

13  "  16 

33  "35 

26  "  32 

14  "  19 

34  "39 


14 

"19 

32 

"35 

17 

"19 

20 

"25 

15 

"17 

10 

"15 

12  to  15 


13  to  16 


13  to  16 


16  to  1 7 

5"  8 
13  "  15 


26  to  27 


"3 

"  35 


26  "  32 


"3 
"39 

"  3 
"  35 
"  2 

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